The past two decades have seen a rapid increase in interest in financial inclusion, both from policymakers and researchers. This paper surveys the main findings from the literature, documenting the trends over time and gaps that have arisen across regions, income levels, and gender, among others. It points out that structural, as well as policy-related, factors, such as encouraging banking competition or channeling government payments through bank accounts, play an important role, and describes the potential macro and microeconomic benefits that can be derived from greater financial inclusion. It argues that policy should aim to identify and reduce frictions holding back financial inclusion, rather than targeting specific levels of inclusion. Finally, it suggests areas for future research.
Recent advances in digital technology and big data have allowed FinTech (financial technology) lending to emerge as a potentially promising solution to reduce the cost of credit and increase financial inclusion. However, machine learning (ML) methods that lie at the heart of FinTech credit have remained largely a black box for the nontechnical audience. This paper contributes to the literature by discussing potential strengths and weaknesses of ML-based credit assessment through (1) presenting core ideas and the most common techniques in ML for the nontechnical audience; and (2) discussing the fundamental challenges in credit risk analysis. FinTech credit has the potential to enhance financial inclusion and outperform traditional credit scoring by (1) leveraging nontraditional data sources to improve the assessment of the borrower’s track record; (2) appraising collateral value; (3) forecasting income prospects; and (4) predicting changes in general conditions. However, because of the central role of data in ML-based analysis, data relevance should be ensured, especially in situations when a deep structural change occurs, when borrowers could counterfeit certain indicators, and when agency problems arising from information asymmetry could not be resolved. To avoid digital financial exclusion and redlining, variables that trigger discrimination should not be used to assess credit rating.
In 2011 the World Bank—with funding from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation—launched the Global Findex database, the world's most comprehensive data set on how adults save, borrow, make payments, and manage risk. Drawing on survey data collected in collaboration with Gallup, Inc., the Global Findex database covers more than 140 economies around the world. The initial survey round was followed by a second one in 2014 and by a third in 2017. Compiled using nationally representative surveys of more than 150,000 adults age 15 and above in over 140 economies, The Global Findex Database 2017: Measuring Financial Inclusion and the Fintech Revolution includes updated indicators on access to and use of formal and informal financial services. It has additional data on the use of financial technology (or fintech), including the use of mobile phones and the Internet to conduct financial transactions. The data reveal opportunities to expand access to financial services among people who do not have an account—the unbanked—as well as to promote greater use of digital financial services among those who do have an account. The Global Findex database has become a mainstay of global efforts to promote financial inclusion. In addition to being widely cited by scholars and development practitioners, Global Findex data are used to track progress toward the World Bank goal of Universal Financial Access by 2020 and the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. The database, the full text of the report, and the underlying country-level data for all figures—along with the questionnaire, the survey methodology, and other relevant materials—are available at www.worldbank.org/globalfindex.
Asia has made significant progress in financial inclusion, but both its across-country and intra-country disparities are among the highest in the world. The gaps between the rich and the poor, rural and urban populations, and men and women remain deep. Income is the main determinant of the level of financial inclusion; but other factors, such as geography, financial sector structure, and policies, also play important roles. While some countries in the Asia-Pacific region are leaders in fintech, on average the region lags behind others in several important areas such as online (internet) purchases, electronic payments, mobile money, and mobile government transfers. This Departmental Paper aims to take stock of the development and current state of financial inclusion and shed light on policies to advance financial inclusion in the region. The research focuses on the impact of financial inclusion on economic growth, poverty reduction, and inequality, linkages between financial inclusion and macroeconomic policies, as well as structural policies that are important for improving financial inclusion. Given the increasing importance of financial technologies (fintech), the paper also provides a snapshot of the fintech landscape in the Asia-Pacific.
Financial literacy and financial education are not new topics, even though interest in these topics among policymakers, financial authorities, and academics continues to grow. The Routledge Handbook of Financial Literacy provides a comprehensive reference work that addresses both research perspectives and practical applications to financial education. This is the first volume to summarize the milestones of research in financial literacy from multiple perspectives to offer an overview. The book is organized into six parts. The first three parts provide a conceptual framework, which discusses what financial literacy is, how it should be measured, and explains why it represents a relevant topic and effective tool in enhancing decision-making among consumers as well as consumer protection strategies. Part IV addresses the connection between financial education and financial literacy, with chapters about financial education in school settings as well as for adults. This part includes an analysis of the role of Fintech and the use of gamification in financial education. Part V is a collection of contributions that analyze financial literacy and financial education around the world, with a focus on geographical areas including the U.S., South America, Western Europe, Eastern Europe, Asia, and Africa. This part also considers how financial literacy should be addressed in the case of Islamic finance. The concluding part of the book examines how financial literacy is related to other possible approaches to consumer finance and consumer protection, addressing the relationships between financial literacy and behavioral economics, financial well-being, and financial inclusion. This volume is an indispensable reference for scholars who are new to the topic, including undergraduate and graduate students, and for experienced researchers who wish to enrich their knowledge, policymakers seeking a broader understanding and an international perspective, and practitioners who seek knowledge of best practices as well as innovative approaches.
Financial inclusion has proven to be a looming issue challenging policymakers and scholars. Financial inclusion revolves around the fundamental notion of ensuring that individuals from all walks of life have access to affordable and effective financial products and services that cater to their unique needs. Yet, as we grapple with this issue, we find it entwined with other critical factors such as religious and cultural norms, technological advancements, and sustainability goals. The intricate web of these elements forms a complex tapestry that requires deep exploration and understanding. Financial Inclusion, Sustainability, and the Influence of Religion and Technology is a groundbreaking book which delves headfirst into the multifaceted issue of the inclusivity of financial services and the complexities of societal interplay in this matter. Targeting academic scholars as its primary audience, this book acts as a guide to solution development. It meticulously unravels the intricate connections between financial inclusion, sustainability, religion, and technology. Readers will embark on a journey that not only dissects the problem but also illuminates the path forward. From exploring the complex relationship between financial inclusion and sustainability to identifying the challenges and opportunities presented by religion and technology, this book leaves no stone unturned. It offers a comprehensive roadmap for future research and action, providing a beacon of hope for achieving a more equitable and technologically advanced future.
This book investigates the regulation and promotion of financial inclusion and provides a comparative analysis of the regulation, promotion and enforcement of the relevant laws in the SADC (in particular, South Africa, Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe), as well as the challenges of financial inclusion. In turn, it evaluates financial inclusion in the context of specific challenges faced by unbanked and underbanked customers, who are easy targets for cyber criminals because they tend to have lower levels of digital literacy. The book presents novel discussions that identify the challenges and flaws associated with the enforcement of financial inclusion laws and related measures intended to promote financial inclusion in the SADC region. This is primarily done in order to reveal the current strengths and weaknesses of financial inclusion laws in relation to certain aspects of the companies, securities and financial markets in the region. For example, there is no common financial inclusion instrument/law that is effectively and uniformly applied throughout the SADC. This has impeded the enforcement authorities’ efforts to effectively combat financial exclusion across the region.The book is likely the most comprehensive study to date on the regulation and promotion of financial inclusion in the SADC region and fills a major gap in SADC and African legal jurisprudence. As such, it offers a valuable asset for policymakers, attorneys, bankers, securities (share) holders, and other market participants who deal with financial inclusion, as well as undergraduate and graduate students interested in the topic.
The paper finds that while there are important regional and national differences, countries are broadly embracing the opportunities of fintech to boost economic growth and inclusion, while balancing risks to stability and integrity.
This book is unique in that it challenges scholarly views on financial inclusion and poverty reduction while also relating financial inclusion and poverty reduction to the Fourth Industrial Revolution. The book deviates from the usual method of analyzing financial inclusion, which relies on bank accounts or microcredit as success criteria, and instead discusses how the Fourth Industrial Revolution is facilitating digital financial inclusion. With a five-fold goal, this book investigates both past and present readings and understandings of poverty and financial inclusion. To begin, it provides a thorough introduction to the Fourth Industrial Revolution and financial inclusion in the context of the Fourth Industrial Revolution. Second, the book dives quite extensively into the theories of financial inclusion in the context of the Fourth Industrial Revolution. Third, the book reconstructs the theory of financial inclusion, moving from traditional to digital financial inclusion, highlighting the role of digital financial inclusion in the transition from an informal financial money market to a formal financial system. The fourth goal is to evaluate the tools and effects of digital financial inclusion on poverty. Finally, it provides case studies of digital financial inclusion and the future of digital financial inclusion in emerging and developing countries. This book will be of interest to academics, students and practitioners in a range of disciplines, including finance, development economics, and consumer economics.
Against a background of calls to prioritise the improvement of financial inclusion in Africa, this book provides an analysis of current financial inclusion measures in Southern Africa. Evaluating the existing strengths and weaknesses of financial inclusion in Africa, it identifies opportunities to improve inclusive financial services and aid poverty reduction in the region. With a focus on South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, and Zimbabwe as case studies for assessing current financial inclusion in the context of particular challenges faced by unbanked and underbanked customers, who are easy targets for cybercriminals due to low levels of digital literacy, it looks into the regulation and promotion of financial inclusion in Southern Africa. The book explores financial inclusion in the context of digital transformation in the 21st century, examining the regulation and promotion of financial inclusion in the context of digital transformation, as well as the challenges related to financial inclusion. Suggesting improvements to aspects of company law, securities and financial markets in the Southern African Development Community region, the book offers a comprehensive study on the regulation and promotion of financial inclusion in the Southern African Development Community region. It will be essential reading for students and academics researching financial inclusion, international economic law and development.
